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Insights on post-quantum cryptography, security, and product updates. Subscribe via RSS.
Articles written in plain language. No jargon walls. Explanations backed by NIST, FIPS, RFC, and IETF standards, for security professionals and newcomers alike.
NIST SP 800-57: Key Management Recommendations
NIST SP 800-57 is the cornerstone of cryptographic key management. The full title is "Recommendation for Key Management." It comes in three parts:
NIST SP 800-56C: Key Derivation Through Extract-Expand
After two parties run a key-establishment scheme like ECDH or ML-KEM, they end up with a "shared secret." That shared secret is not yet usable as a symmetric...
NIST SP 800-56A: Pair-Wise Key Establishment
NIST SP 800-56A Revision 3 ("Recommendation for Pair-Wise Key-Establishment Schemes Using Discrete Logarithm Cryptography") was published in April 2018.
NIST SP 800-227: The Hybrid PQC Guidance
The NIST Post-Quantum Cryptography standards arrived in 2024, but they did not arrive alone.
NIST SP 800-208: Stateful Hash Signatures (LMS, XMSS)
NIST SP 800-208, "Recommendation for Stateful Hash-Based Signature Schemes," was published in October 2020. It is older than the FIPS PQC standards from 2024.
NIST SP 800-131A Rev 3: Cryptographic Transition Schedule
Algorithms age. RSA-1024 was a strong choice in 1995, an everyday default in 2005, a legacy concern in 2015, and disallowed by 2024.
NIST Additional Signature On-Ramp: 14 Candidates Status
When NIST finalised its main post-quantum cryptography competition in 2024, the signature side ended with three standardised schemes: ML-DSA (lattice), SLH-DSA...
NIST Round 4 KEM Candidates: Final Status
NIST's Round 4 of the Post-Quantum Cryptography Standardization Process kept three Key Encapsulation Mechanism (KEM) candidates alive after the lattice-based...
NIST P-Curves vs Curve25519: The 2026 Recommendation
For two decades, engineers building secure systems faced a choice. They could use the NIST P-curves (P-256, P-384, P-521), which are mandated by US federal...
NIST IR 8547: PQC Transition Strategy
For most organizations, the question is not whether to migrate to post-quantum cryptography. It is how. Standards exist (FIPS 203, 204, 205).
NIST IR 8528: Round 4 KEM Status Report
When NIST announced the first set of post-quantum standards in July 2022, it picked one main key encapsulation mechanism (KEM): CRYSTALS-Kyber, now known as...
NIST IR 8413: Round 3 PQC Standardization Report
NIST Internal Report (IR) 8413 was published in July 2022. Its full title is "Status Report on the Third Round of the NIST Post-Quantum Cryptography...
NIAP and PQC: Common Criteria Protection Profiles
The National Information Assurance Partnership (NIAP) is the United States body that approves Common Criteria evaluations for products that go into National...
NFC Payments PQC: ISO 14443 Direction
Tap-to-pay has changed how most of the world handles small transactions. The basic interaction is so fast that users barely notice it: hold the card or phone...
NewHope: The First Real-World Lattice KEM Pilot
In July 2016, Google began a small experiment. For about three months, a fraction of Chrome Canary users connecting to certain Google servers used a hybrid...
nCipher / Entrust nShield: PQC Status
nShield is one of the most widely deployed network HSM lines in regulated industries.
Multivariate Cryptography After Rainbow
Multivariate cryptography is the family of public-key schemes whose security rests on the difficulty of solving systems of multivariate quadratic equations...
Module-LWE: How Kyber Got Its Speed
Plain Learning With Errors gives strong cryptographic security but huge keys and slow operations.
MLS Protocol: How Group Messaging Stays Forward-Secure
For more than a decade, secure messaging in groups was an open problem. The Signal protocol gave us excellent end-to-end encryption for two-person chats, with...
ML-KEM-768: The TLS Default Choice Explained
ML-KEM-768 is the middle parameter set of the ML-KEM family standardized in NIST FIPS 203.
ML-KEM-512 Parameters, Sizes, and When to Use It
ML-KEM-512 is the smallest and fastest of the three ML-KEM parameter sets standardized by NIST in FIPS 203 in August 2024.
ML-KEM-1024: Maximum Security Parameters
ML-KEM-1024 is the largest and most conservative parameter set in NIST FIPS 203. It produces a 1568-byte public key, a 1568-byte ciphertext, and a 3168-byte...
ML-DSA-87: Maximum-Security Lattice Signatures
ML-DSA-87 is the largest and most conservative parameter set of the ML-DSA family standardized in NIST FIPS 204.
ML-DSA-65: The Balanced Signature Choice
ML-DSA-65 is the middle parameter set of the ML-DSA family in NIST FIPS 204. It produces a 1952-byte public key, a 3293-byte signature, and a 4032-byte secret...
ML-DSA-44 Parameters, Speed, and Use Cases
ML-DSA-44 is the smallest and fastest of the three ML-DSA parameter sets standardized by NIST in FIPS 204 in August 2024.
Microsoft Pluton: PQC Roadmap
Microsoft Pluton is a security processor that lives directly inside the CPU package.
Merkle Trees: The Foundation of Hash-Based Signatures
Few data structures have shaped cryptography as deeply as the Merkle tree. Invented by Ralph Merkle in 1979, this simple tree-of-hashes idea now underpins...
Mbed TLS: Post-Quantum Status for Embedded Devices
Mbed TLS is the small TLS library that runs in places other libraries cannot fit. Microcontrollers with 64 KB of flash. Sensor nodes with 8 KB of RAM.
Matrix and PQC: Olm/Megolm Roadmap
Matrix is an open, federated communication protocol used by Element, the French government's Tchap, the German military's BwMessenger, the Mozilla Foundation...
Maritime ECDIS and PQC
A modern commercial vessel runs on dozens of digital systems. Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS) integrates electronic navigational charts...
Manufacturing Trade Secrets and PQC
Manufacturing companies live and die by their trade secrets. The CAD models, process specifications, supplier relationships, tooling designs, and quality...
Learning With Errors: The Math Behind ML-KEM
If you ask a cryptographer why ML-KEM is safe against quantum computers, the answer keeps circling back to four letters: LWE.
Lucky 13: Timing Attacks on TLS-CBC
In February 2013, two cryptographers at Royal Holloway, University of London, published a paper that quietly broke another piece of TLS.
Logjam and FREAK: Export-Grade Crypto Comebacks
In the 1990s, the United States government classified strong encryption as a munition and required export licenses for cryptographic software shipped overseas.
LMS vs XMSS: Two Stateful Hash Signature Schemes
NIST SP 800-208 approves two stateful hash-based signature schemes for federal use: [LMS](lms-stateful-signatures) and [XMSS](xmss-signatures-explained).
Lightning Network: How Quantum Affects HTLC and Channels
The Lightning Network is the largest layer-two scaling solution for Bitcoin. It moves payments off-chain into bidirectional payment channels, settling only the...
liboqs: The Open Quantum Safe Reference Library
If you have followed post-quantum cryptography at all over the past several years, you have probably encountered the name liboqs.
Lattice Cryptography: Future Research Directions
Lattice-based cryptography is the workhorse of post-quantum standards. NIST's main standardised KEM (ML-KEM, FIPS 203), main signature (ML-DSA, FIPS 204), and...
KMIP and PQC: Key Management Protocol Updates
KMIP, the Key Management Interoperability Protocol, is an OASIS standard for talking to centralized key management servers.
KMAC and cSHAKE: Domain-Separated SHA-3 Functions
When NIST standardized SHA-3 in 2015, the family included not just fixed-output hash functions like SHA3-256 and SHA3-512 but also two extendable-output...
Key Rotation Policies for PQC
When a security engineer first encounters post-quantum cryptography, the algorithms get most of the attention.
Kerberos and PQC: PKINIT, Pre-Auth, and the Path Forward
Kerberos is the authentication protocol that runs Active Directory, MIT Kerberos deployments, and various Linux enterprise authentication systems.
KDF1, KDF2, KDF3: ANSI X9.63 Derivation Functions
Long before HKDF became the dominant key derivation function on the internet, standards bodies like ANSI and ISO had already defined their own family of KDFs.
JWT and PQC: Algorithm Identifiers in JOSE
A JSON Web Token (JWT) is the swiss army knife of stateless web authentication. It is a base64url-encoded blob with three parts separated by dots: a header, a...
Java BouncyCastle: Post-Quantum Algorithm Coverage
BouncyCastle is the cryptography library that fills in everything the Java standard library leaves out.
ISO/IEC 9797: Message Authentication Code Standards
A message authentication code (MAC) proves that a message came from someone who knows a shared secret key, and that the message has not been changed in...
ISO/IEC 19790: Cryptographic Module Security Requirements
A correct algorithm in a poorly built module is no better than a broken algorithm.
ISO/IEC 18033 Encryption Standards Overview
When American organizations think about cryptographic standards, they usually think NIST.
ISO/IEC 14888 Digital Signature Standards
A digital signature does two jobs: it proves who created a piece of data (authenticity) and it proves the data has not been changed (integrity).
ISO/IEC 11770 Key Management Series
The hardest part of cryptography is not the math. It is the keys. Generating them, distributing them, storing them, rotating them, retiring them, recovering...
Isogeny-Based Cryptography After SIKE
In July 2022, two researchers at KU Leuven, Wouter Castryck and Thomas Decru, published a paper that broke SIKE (Supersingular Isogeny Key Encapsulation), one...
IETF RFC 9420: MLS Messaging Layer Security
For two-party end-to-end encrypted messaging, Signal Protocol has been the de facto standard for over a decade.
IETF RFC 9180: HPKE (Hybrid Public Key Encryption)
The name HPKE is confusing. "Hybrid" in HPKE does not mean "post-quantum hybrid." It is older terminology meaning "asymmetric plus symmetric": use a public-key...
IETF PQUIP Drafts: The Internet Engineering PQC Push
NIST writes the algorithms. ETSI writes the migration framework. ISO/IEC writes the international standards.
I2P and PQC: The Garlic Routing Network
The Invisible Internet Project, known as I2P, is a peer-to-peer anonymity network.
Hardware Security Modules and PQC: A Buyer's Map
A hardware security module is a tamper-resistant device that performs cryptographic operations and stores keys in a way that the keys never leave the device in...
HQC-256: Code-Based Maximum Security
HQC-256 is the strongest parameter set of the HQC code-based KEM family. It targets NIST Category 5, equivalent to AES-256 brute-force resistance.
HQC-192 Deep Dive
HQC-192 is the middle parameter set of the HQC code-based KEM family. It targets NIST Category 3 security, equivalent to AES-192 brute-force resistance, which...
HQC-128: Code-Based KEM Parameters
When NIST announced its post-quantum standardization plan, it explicitly committed to selecting at least one key encapsulation mechanism that did not rely on...
HMAC: How Keyed-Hash Authentication Works
When two computers exchange a message, the receiver needs two things: confidence that the message has not been tampered with, and confidence that it actually...
HKDF (RFC 5869) Line by Line
When two computers agree on a shared secret over the internet, that secret is rarely usable as-is.
HIPAA Security Rule: What "Addressable" Encryption Really Means
The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) Security Rule is one of the most misunderstood regulatory frameworks in United States...
Heartbleed: PQC Implementation Lessons Learned
On 7 April 2014 the world learned that one of the most widely used cryptographic libraries on the internet had been silently leaking sensitive data for over...
Hash-Based Signature Trade-offs Explained
Hash-based signatures are the most conservative quantum-resistant signature family.
HashiCorp Vault: PQC Roadmap and Plugins
HashiCorp Vault sits at the center of secrets management for thousands of enterprises.
Google Titan: PQC Roadmap
Titan is Google's hardware security family. The name covers several different products that share the philosophy of dedicated silicon for security-critical...
Google Cloud KMS: Post-Quantum Cryptography Roadmap
Google Cloud KMS is Google Cloud's encryption-at-rest backbone, the same role AWS KMS and Azure Key Vault play in their respective clouds.
Go crypto/tls: ML-KEM Support and Roadmap
The Go standard library has its own TLS implementation. It is not built on OpenSSL. It is not built on BoringSSL.
FrodoKEM: The Conservative Lattice KEM
FrodoKEM is a lattice-based key encapsulation mechanism that uses plain Learning With Errors (LWE) instead of the structured Module-LWE that ML-KEM uses.
FN-DSA-512 (FALCON-512): Compact Lattice Signatures
If you measure post-quantum signature schemes by signature size alone, FN-DSA-512 wins by a wide margin. Its signatures are roughly 666 bytes.
FN-DSA-1024 (FALCON-1024) Deep Dive
For applications that need NIST Category 5 post-quantum signature security but cannot tolerate large signatures, FN-DSA-1024 is the strongest compact option...
FISMA Cryptographic Requirements 2026 Edition
The Federal Information Security Modernization Act of 2014 (FISMA, Public Law 113-283) updated the original Federal Information Security Management Act of 2002...
FIPS 206 Draft: FN-DSA / FALCON Status
Of the four signature schemes NIST chose at the end of the third PQC round, three were finalized as FIPS standards on August 13, 2024.
FIPS 204 Walkthrough: ML-DSA Standard in Plain English
FIPS 204 is the Module-Lattice-Based Digital Signature Standard. It was published by NIST on August 13, 2024, the same day as FIPS 203.
FIPS 203 Walkthrough: ML-KEM Standard in Plain English
When NIST published FIPS 203 on August 13, 2024, it ended a seven-year competition that started in late 2016. The document is 51 pages of dense math notation.
Fedwire and Post-Quantum Cryptography: Federal Reserve Direction
Fedwire Funds Service is the Federal Reserve's real-time gross settlement system.
Fault Injection: Glitching, Lasers, and Voltage
Most cryptographic attacks are passive: the attacker measures something the device produces (timing, power, EM, output) and uses statistical or mathematical...
EU Cyber Resilience Act: PQC Implications
The Cyber Resilience Act, formally Regulation (EU) 2024/2847 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2024 on horizontal cybersecurity...
ETSI TS 103 744: Hybrid Key Exchange Profile
The cryptographic community has converged on hybrid mode as the right approach for the post-quantum transition: combine a classical algorithm (X25519, P-256)...
ETSI TR 103 619: Migrating to Quantum-Safe Schemes
In 2020, the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) published Technical Report 103 619: "Migration strategies and recommendations to Quantum...
ETSI GS QSC 001: Quantum-Safe Cryptography Use Cases
Designing a quantum-safe migration plan for an entire organization is one thing. Designing it for a specific use case, like protecting a 5G subscriber...
Ethereum and Quantum: BLS12-381, Account Abstraction, EIPs
Ethereum is a complex stack. Unlike Bitcoin, which uses one elliptic curve and one signature scheme for all wallet operations, Ethereum mixes multiple...
ENISA Threat Landscape Reports for Cryptography
The European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA) publishes the ENISA Threat Landscape Report once a year, with topical updates between annual publications.
Energy SCADA Systems and PQC
The North American electric grid runs on Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems that were designed when cryptography was an afterthought and...
EMV Chip Cards and PQC
The chip on every modern credit card is a small, single-purpose computer with a long history.
ElGamal Encryption: The Forgotten Public-Key Scheme
When most people think of public-key cryptography, they think of RSA. When they think a little harder, they think of elliptic curves.
Edge Computing and PQC
The cloud is far away. For most user-facing applications, that distance does not matter. A web page that loads in 200 milliseconds is fine.
Ed25519 vs Ed448: Higher Security Twin Explained
Ed25519 is the most popular signature scheme in modern protocols. SSH, OpenPGP, Tor, Signal, and almost every Linux package signing chain uses it.
NIST P-Curves: P-256, P-384, P-521 Explained
If you have looked at TLS certificates, IoT firmware, or government cryptographic standards in the last 25 years, you have run into the NIST P-curves.
Dual EC DRBG: How a Standard Got a Backdoor
In 2006, NIST published Special Publication 800-90A, "Recommendation for Random Number Generation Using Deterministic Random Bit Generators." Among the four...
DTLS and PQC: UDP Cryptography Goes Quantum-Safe
When most people hear about secure connections on the internet they think about TLS, the lock icon in the browser, the handshake that protects every web page.
DSA: Why FIPS 186-5 Deprecates the Original Signature
The Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA) was the first signature standard published by the US government, originally specified in FIPS 186 (1994) and refined...
Drone Command-and-Control PQC
A drone in flight depends on a command-and-control link that delivers operator commands to the aircraft and returns telemetry, video, and sensor data to the...
.NET 9 and .NET 10: Post-Quantum Cryptography APIs
The .NET runtime ships its own cryptographic implementation across Windows, Linux, and macOS.
DORA: Cryptography Requirements for EU Financial Entities
The Digital Operational Resilience Act, formally Regulation (EU) 2022/2554 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 December 2022, became directly...
DNSSEC and PQC: Why Signature Size Is the Whole Problem
DNSSEC is the cryptographic extension that lets DNS resolvers verify that the DNS records they receive are authentic.
DNS-over-HTTPS and PQC: Connection-Layer Migration
DNS-over-HTTPS (DoH) is the protocol that wraps DNS queries inside HTTPS requests.
Diffie-Hellman Group Exchange and the Logjam Lessons
In 1976, two researchers at Stanford published a paper that changed cryptography forever.
Decryption Oracles: Why They Are Catastrophic
In cryptography, an oracle is a service that performs an operation on data without revealing how.
Decoherence as an Attack Vector for QKD
Quantum systems are fragile. The same property that makes quantum computers so powerful (superposition and entanglement of qubits) is also what makes them so...
CWE and CVE: Categorizing PQC Implementation Bugs
CWE stands for Common Weakness Enumeration. It is a list of categories of software flaw, maintained by MITRE.
Curve25519: Why It Is Everywhere
If you have used a modern messaging app, connected to a VPN with WireGuard, opened an SSH connection on a Linux machine made after 2014, or browsed a website...
CSIDH: Commutative Supersingular Isogeny Diffie-Hellman
CSIDH (pronounced "sea-side") is an isogeny-based key exchange protocol introduced in 2018 by Wouter Castryck, Tanja Lange, Chloe Martindale, Lorenz Panny, and...
CRYSTALS-Kyber: From Submission to ML-KEM Standard
The story of CRYSTALS-Kyber is the story of how nine cryptographers spent seven years moving a research idea through the most rigorous public scrutiny process...
CRYSTALS-Dilithium: From Submission to ML-DSA Standard
CRYSTALS-Dilithium occupies a parallel place in post-quantum signature standardization to what Kyber occupies in key encapsulation.
Cryptographic Inventory Tools 2026 Survey
You cannot migrate what you cannot find. This is the unglamorous truth of post-quantum cryptography migration.
CRL and OCSP at PQC Signature Sizes
The X.509 revocation infrastructure has been showing strain for years. Certificate Revocation Lists (CRLs) grow large with active CAs.
CRIME and BREACH: Compression Side Channels in TLS
In September 2012, Juliano Rizzo and Thai Duong, the same researchers who built the BEAST attack a year earlier, returned with another live demonstration that...
Concat KDF (SP 800-56C): The Two-Step Approach
When two parties run a key agreement protocol, the output is a shared secret that both sides can compute independently.
Common Criteria: How PQC Fits Into CC Evaluation
Common Criteria (CC) is the international standard for security evaluation of information technology products.
Cold Boot Attacks: Reading RAM After Power Off
In 2008, a team of researchers at Princeton, the Electronic Frontier Foundation, and Wind River Systems pulled the power on a running laptop, sprayed the...
Code Signing PQC Migration Playbook
Code signing is the bedrock of software trust. When you download an installer for Windows or run a notarized macOS app, your operating system checks a...
Code-Based Post-Quantum Cryptography: Future Beyond HQC
Code-based cryptography has the longest cryptanalytic record in post-quantum cryptography.
CNSA 2.0 Timeline: Every Deadline From 2027 to 2035
The National Security Agency published the Commercial National Security Algorithm Suite 2.0 (CNSA 2.0) in September 2022, then issued the formal CNSA 2.0...
CNSA 1.0 vs CNSA 2.0: What Actually Changed
When the National Security Agency replaced the Commercial National Security Algorithm Suite 1.0 with version 2.0 in September 2022, most coverage flattened the...
CMVP and FIPS 140-3: How Cryptographic Modules Get Validated
The Cryptographic Module Validation Program (CMVP) is the joint program of NIST and Communications Security Establishment Canada (CSE) that validates...
CMMC Level 2 and 3: Cryptography Controls Explained
The Cybersecurity Maturity Model Certification (CMMC) is the United States Department of Defense framework for assessing and certifying the cybersecurity...
CIRCIA: Critical Infrastructure Reporting Explained
The Cyber Incident Reporting for Critical Infrastructure Act of 2022 (CIRCIA) is the most significant federal cyber incident reporting law in United States...
ChaCha20 vs AES-GCM: When to Pick Which
When you connect to a website over HTTPS, send a message on Signal, or open a WireGuard VPN tunnel, one of two stream ciphers is doing the heavy lifting...
Certificate Lifecycle Management and PQC
X.509 certificates have been the connective tissue of the public web for thirty years.
Certificate Transparency Logs and PQC
Certificate Transparency, defined in RFC 9162 (and earlier RFC 6962), is the public record of every TLS certificate issued by a participating CA.
Cellular SIM and eSIM PQC
The SIM card is the most distributed cryptographic device on the planet. There are over eight billion active mobile subscriptions worldwide, and almost every...
CCS Injection: A 2014 OpenSSL Lesson
In June 2014, two months after the world finished panicking about Heartbleed, OpenSSL released another emergency patch.
CBOM: The Cryptographic Bill of Materials Standard
The software industry has spent the better part of a decade getting comfortable with the Software Bill of Materials, or SBOM.
CBDC and Post-Quantum Cryptography Requirements
A Central Bank Digital Currency is a digital form of a country's official currency, issued and backed by the central bank itself.
Camellia: The NTT/Mitsubishi AES Alternative
In the late 1990s, while NIST was running the AES competition in the United States, a parallel effort was happening in Japan.
Cache-Based Attacks on Cryptographic Implementations
When you encrypt a file, the math behind the cipher is only half the story. The other half is what happens inside your computer's CPU while that math runs.
Cable Modem PQC: DOCSIS Roadmap
About one in three internet connections in North America runs over a cable modem. The number is similar or higher in much of Europe and parts of Asia.
CAA DNS Records and PQC
CAA stands for Certification Authority Authorization. It is a small but powerful DNS feature that lets a domain owner say which Certificate Authorities are...
Bluetooth LE and PQC
Bluetooth is everywhere. Wireless earbuds, smartwatches, fitness trackers, car infotainment, hearing aids, smart locks, medical devices, industrial sensors.
Blowfish and Twofish: Schneier's Pre-AES Designs
Before AES, the symmetric encryption world was a patchwork of designs from different teams, each with their own ideas about how to build a fast and secure...
Bleichenbacher's 1998 Attack on RSA-PKCS#1 v1.5
In 1998, a Swiss cryptographer named Daniel Bleichenbacher published a paper that demonstrated a flaw in one of the most widely deployed encryption schemes on...
BLAKE2b vs BLAKE2s vs BLAKE3: The Family Tree
The BLAKE family of hash functions is one of the most successful stories in modern cryptography.
Bitcoin and Quantum: P2PK vs P2PKH vs Taproot Risk
Bitcoin is the longest-running deployment of public-key cryptography on the internet.
BIKE: Bit-Flipping Key Encapsulation Explained
BIKE, short for Bit-Flipping Key Encapsulation, is a code-based KEM that NIST kept alive through Round 4 of the post-quantum competition.
BGPsec and PQC: Routing Security Long-Term
BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) is what makes the internet work as a unified network.
BEAST: How CBC Got Broken in TLS 1.0
In September 2011, two researchers presented a working attack against TLS 1.0 at the Ekoparty security conference in Buenos Aires.
bcrypt: Why It Outlasted MD5-Crypt and SHA-Crypt
In 1999, Niels Provos and David Mazieres published a paper titled "A Future-Adaptable Password Scheme." The paper proposed bcrypt, a password hashing function...
Banking PQC Migration Playbook (NIST + FFIEC Aligned)
Banks run on trust, and trust runs on cryptography. Every wire transfer, mortgage application, ATM transaction, and customer login depends on math that quantum...
ARIA: South Korea's National Cipher
In 2003, South Korea published its national block cipher standard. The cipher is called ARIA, and it is the symmetric encryption algorithm that Korean...
Aviation ARINC 664 and PQC
Modern airliners are flying networks. The Boeing 787 and Airbus A350 carry hundreds of computers connected through ARINC 664 / AFDX (Avionics Full-Duplex...
Autonomous Vehicles V2X and PQC
A vehicle equipped for V2X (vehicle-to-everything) communication broadcasts its position, speed, and intent to other vehicles and infrastructure approximately...
ATM Networks and Post-Quantum Cryptography
When you walk up to an ATM and tap in your PIN, a chain of cryptographic operations races across a private banking network in milliseconds.
Apple Secure Enclave and PQC: What Is Public
The Secure Enclave is the small computer inside every modern Apple device that handles biometrics, encryption keys, and the most sensitive cryptographic...
Apple iMessage PQ3: Architecture in Plain English
On February 21, 2024, Apple's Security Engineering and Architecture team published a long technical post on security.apple.com titled "iMessage with PQ3: The...
Amplitude Amplification: The Generalization of Grover's Algorithm
Grover's algorithm is the household name. It searches an unstructured database of N items in roughly sqrt(N) steps, a quadratic speedup that became the second...
AES Modes Explained: CBC, GCM, OCB, CCM
The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) only knows how to encrypt one 128-bit block at a time.
AES-CTR Mode in Plain English
If you have ever opened a TLS handshake trace, looked under the hood of a disk encryption tool, or read the source of a cryptographic library, you have seen...
ACME and PQC: Let's Encrypt Roadmap
The Automatic Certificate Management Environment, better known as ACME, is the protocol that quietly makes most of the modern web work.
ACH Transfers and Post-Quantum Cryptography
When you pay your electric bill from your bank's website, get your direct deposit on payday, or set up an automatic mortgage payment, you are using the...
6G Research and PQC: ITU-T and 3GPP Direction
Every cellular generation arrives roughly every ten years. 1G in the early 1980s. 2G in the 1990s. 3G in the early 2000s. 4G around 2010. 5G in 2020.
AWS CloudHSM: PQC Algorithm Coverage
AWS CloudHSM gives customers dedicated, single-tenant hardware security modules in the AWS cloud.
Post-Quantum Cryptography Benchmarks 2026: ML-KEM, ML-DSA, SLH-DSA, FN-DSA, HQC and LMS Measured
This is an original benchmark study of every post-quantum cryptography algorithm QNSQY ships, with the method published. Updated 2026-08-20 with classical baselines (ECDSA-P256, X25519) and the August 2026 constant-time Falcon numbers...
How to Check if a Website Is Quantum-Ready (Free PQC Checker, 10 Seconds)
You can test whether any website's TLS connection is protected against future quantum computers in about ten seconds, for free, without signing up for...
Free Post-Quantum Cryptography Certification: Inside the Quantum Sequrity Academy
There is a strange gap in security education right now: post-quantum cryptography is the biggest forced migration in the history of the field, governments have...
TLS 1.3 Hybrid Handshake: How It Actually Works
If you have visited any reasonably modern website in the last two years and looked at the TLS connection details, you may have seen a key exchange algorithm...
FedRAMP Rev 5: Cryptographic Control Updates
The Federal Risk and Authorization Management Program (FedRAMP) authorizes cloud service providers to sell to the United States federal government.
NIS2 Directive: Cryptography Provisions Explained
The Network and Information Security Directive 2, formally Directive (EU) 2022/2555 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 December 2022 on...
Classic McEliece: The 47-Year-Old PQC Candidate
In 1978, Robert J. McEliece published a paper called "A Public-Key Cryptosystem Based on Algebraic Coding Theory" in the JPL DSN Progress Report.
SIKE: How Castryck-Decru Broke a NIST Round 4 Candidate in an Hour
On July 30, 2022, Wouter Castryck and Thomas Decru of KU Leuven published a paper called "An efficient key recovery attack on SIDH".
SIDH: Supersingular Isogeny Diffie-Hellman History
SIDH, Supersingular Isogeny Diffie-Hellman, was a post-quantum key exchange protocol proposed in 2011 by Luca De Feo and David Jao.
BB84: The First Quantum Key Distribution Protocol
Long before Shor's algorithm threatened RSA, Charles Bennett and Gilles Brassard proposed using the laws of quantum mechanics to solve a much older problem...
E91: Ekert's Entanglement-Based QKD Protocol
In 1991, a young Polish physicist named Artur Ekert published a paper that took quantum key distribution in a strikingly different direction from BB84.
SARG04 and Decoy-State QKD
By the early 2000s, BB84 had been studied and demonstrated in laboratories for nearly two decades, and the first commercial systems were just appearing.
B92: A Two-State QKD Protocol Explained
In 1992, eight years after introducing BB84 with Gilles Brassard, Charles Bennett published a streamlined quantum key distribution protocol that needed only...
IPsec IKEv2 PQC: RFC 9242 and Hybrid Key Exchange
IPsec is the protocol family that builds Virtual Private Networks at the IP layer.
RPKI and PQC: Resource Public Key Infrastructure Migration
RPKI (Resource Public Key Infrastructure) is the cryptographic backbone of modern internet routing security.
QUIC and PQC: How HTTP/3 Got Quantum-Safe
QUIC is the transport protocol underneath HTTP/3. It was designed by Google, hardened through real-world deployment, and standardized at IETF in RFC 9000 in...
PQC in CI/CD Pipelines
CI/CD pipelines are the conveyor belts of modern software development. Every commit goes through a pipeline that compiles, tests, and ships the result.
Is AES-256 Quantum Safe?
AES-256 is quantum safe by every authoritative standard published as of 2026. The Advanced Encryption Standard with a 256-bit key survives Grover's algorithm...
FIPS 205 Walkthrough: SLH-DSA Standard in Plain English
When NIST published FIPS 205 on August 13, 2024, it crowned a curiosity from the late 1970s.
Argon2id vs bcrypt vs scrypt: 2026 Recommendations
When a user creates an account, the server has to store something that proves the user knows their password.
AWS KMS: How Post-Quantum Cryptography Got Wired In
AWS Key Management Service is the encryption-at-rest backbone for the AWS cloud. Every S3 object encrypted with SSE-KMS, every EBS volume with default...
BoringSSL: Google's Post-Quantum Implementation Status
BoringSSL is the TLS library that Google built when it forked OpenSSL in 2014. The project page at github.com/google/boringssl is blunt about its purpose.
AES-XTS: Why Disk Encryption Uses This Specific Mode
If you have BitLocker on a Windows laptop, FileVault on a Mac, or LUKS/dm-crypt on a Linux box, the cipher protecting your hard drive is almost certainly...
Side-Channel Attacks on Post-Quantum Algorithms
A cryptographic algorithm can be mathematically sound and still leak its secrets through the way it is implemented.
Secure Enclaves and PQC: A Map of Current Hardware
A secure enclave is a piece of a chip that runs separately from the rest. It has its own memory, its own access controls, and its own threat model.
PQC and TPM 2.0: Roadmap for Trusted Platform Modules
A trusted platform module is a small computer attached to your computer. It has its own processor, its own memory, and its own non-volatile storage.
Insurance Industry HNDL: 30-Year Claim Tail Risk
The insurance industry has a problem that other sectors do not face at the same scale: claim tails that stretch across decades.
NIST ACVP Vector Run: 18,703 Pass, Zero Failures
Our new ACVP harness replays NIST's full ACVP-Server v1.1.0.42 vector tree against the Rust crates QNSQY ships with. 18,703 pass, 0 fail, 11,259 documented skip out of 29,962.
5G Core Network and PQC: SBA, NRF, NEF
5G is not just faster 4G. The radio side gets a lot of attention because that is where the speed numbers come from, but the bigger architectural change is...
Understanding ML-KEM: The Future of Key Encapsulation
ML-KEM (Module-Lattice Key Encapsulation Mechanism) is the new NIST standard for post-quantum key exchange. Learn how it works, why it matters, and how QNSQY implements it with hybrid security.
What is Post-Quantum Cryptography?
A complete guide to PQC: what it is, why you need it, and how NIST standards protect your data from quantum attacks.
How to Protect Your Data from Quantum Computers
Step-by-step guide to quantum-safe encryption. Start protecting your sensitive files today.
AWS KMS and Post-Quantum Cryptography: 2026 Status
What AWS has actually shipped for ML-KEM in TLS and KMS, and the gap you still need to close yourself.
Does ChatGPT Read My Files? AI Uploads and Quantum Risk
What OpenAI sees when you upload a file and why harvest-now-decrypt-later changes the math even for cloud AI services.
Encrypt Before You Upload to Dropbox, Drive, OneDrive
Cloud vendor encryption protects against outsiders. Here is how to protect against the vendor too.
Azure Key Vault and Post-Quantum Cryptography
Microsoft's post-quantum roadmap is clear. Here is what is actually shipped in Key Vault today.
Quantum-Safe Docker and Kubernetes Secrets
A practical guide to protecting container secrets against harvest-now-decrypt-later attacks.
Signal vs WhatsApp vs iMessage: Quantum-Safe Scorecard
Signal shipped post-quantum encryption. WhatsApp and iMessage have not. The 2026 messaging scorecard.
What is Q-Day? When Quantum Breaks Encryption
A plain-English guide to the biggest deadline in cybersecurity and why estimates keep moving closer.
HNDL in Plain English: The Threat Nobody Talks About
Your private data is being stolen right now to decrypt later. A layman guide to the biggest threat most people have never heard of.
Age vs GPG vs QNSQY: Data Encryption Comparison
Which post-quantum cryptography tool should you use? Compare quantum resistance, ease of use, and security features.
QNSQY Business Features Launch
Introducing 12 KEM algorithms, 8 hash algorithms, threshold encryption with AEAD choice, and SIEM export. The most secure release yet.
Why Hybrid Encryption Matters
Defense-in-depth: combining ML-KEM with X25519 ensures security even if one algorithm is broken.
Getting Started with QNSQY CLI
A complete guide to encrypting, decrypting, and securely deleting files using the command line interface.
Harvest Now, Decrypt Later: The Quantum Threat Timeline
Nation-states are already collecting encrypted data. When will they be able to decrypt it?
Argon2id: Why Memory-Hard Hashing Matters
How Argon2id protects your passwords against GPU and ASIC-based brute force attacks.
ML-DSA vs SLH-DSA: Choosing Your Signature Algorithm
Lattice-based vs hash-based signatures. Performance, security guarantees, and when to use each.
Batch Encryption for Business Workflows
Automate encryption of multiple files with scripts, CI/CD integration, and batch operations.
Linux GUI Security: What Runs Today and What Is Planned
What the Linux desktop app does today (Wayland only, a separate sandboxed process for the cryptography) and what is still planned (memfd_secret, a secure attention sequence, a Flatpak).
The State of Post-Quantum Cryptography in 2026
NIST standards are final. What comes next for the cryptography ecosystem?
YubiKey Integration: Hardware-Bound Encryption
Planned: binding encryption to a hardware key, so files stay safe even if the password leaks. What to do today.
Shamir's Secret Sharing Explained
Mathematical foundations of M-of-N threshold cryptography for key recovery and distributed trust.
Air-Gapped Encryption: Best Practices
How to maximize security with network-isolated encryption workflows.
NIST FIPS 203/204/205: The Complete Guide
Everything you need to know about the new post-quantum cryptography standards.
SIEM Integration: Compliance Made Easy
Export audit logs to Splunk, Elastic, or any SIEM with CEF, JSON, and Syslog support.
Time-Based Security: When Encryption Expires
Understanding the longevity of cryptographic protection and planning for the future.
FN-DSA (Falcon) Explained: Lattice Signatures Done Fast
How FN-DSA uses NTRU lattices to produce compact, fast digital signatures that resist quantum computers.
HQC Explained: Code-Based Encryption for the Quantum Era
NIST selected HQC as a backup to ML-KEM. Learn how error-correcting codes protect key exchange from quantum attacks.
LMS Stateful Signatures: Hash-Based Security You Can Trust
LMS signatures rely only on hash functions. No lattice math, no number theory. Why that matters for long-term security.
AES-256-GCM: The Encryption Standard That Protects Everything
How AES-256-GCM provides authenticated encryption and why 256-bit keys survive Grover's algorithm.
BLAKE3: Why QNSQY Uses the Fastest Cryptographic Hash
BLAKE3 hashes data at 7x the speed of SHA-256. How its Merkle tree design enables streaming and parallel verification.
X25519 and Ed25519: The Classical Crypto in Your Hybrid Shield
Why QNSQY pairs post-quantum algorithms with mature elliptic curve cryptography (X25519 in TLS since 2014, Ed25519 in OpenSSH since 2014) for defense in depth.
Why Quantum Computers Threaten Classical Encryption
Shor's algorithm, Grover's algorithm, and the mathematical reasons RSA and ECC will fall to quantum computers.
Classical vs Quantum-Safe Encryption Compared
Side-by-side comparison of RSA, ECC, and AES against ML-KEM, ML-DSA, and other post-quantum algorithms.
Lattice-Based Cryptography: Foundation of PQC
How the hardness of lattice problems like LWE and Module-LWE underpins ML-KEM, ML-DSA, and modern post-quantum security.
When Will Quantum Computers Break Encryption?
Expert timelines, qubit milestones, and what the research says about when RSA and ECC become vulnerable.
Post-Quantum Encryption for Healthcare and HIPAA
How healthcare organizations can protect patient data with quantum-safe encryption and meet HIPAA requirements.
Post-Quantum Cryptography for Government and Defense
CNSA 2.0 timelines, classified data protection, and why defense agencies are migrating to PQC now.
Post-Quantum Cryptography for Financial Services
PCI DSS, SOX compliance, and how banks and fintechs are preparing for the post-quantum transition.
QNSQY vs VeraCrypt: Quantum-Safe Encryption
Full comparison of encryption algorithms, quantum resistance, use cases, and security models.
How to Implement PQC in Your Organization
A step-by-step roadmap for migrating your organization to post-quantum cryptography, from inventory to deployment.
NIST Post-Quantum Cryptography Timeline: 2016-2026
The complete history of NIST's PQC standardization process, from the initial call for proposals to final FIPS standards.
BitLocker, FileVault, and VeraCrypt: Are Your Disk Encryption Tools Quantum-Safe?
XTS-AES on disk is Grover-safe. TPM release, iCloud escrow, and cloud backups are where the quantum threat actually lives.
2035 NSA CNSA 2.0 Deadline: What It Means and How to Prepare
NSA CNSA 2.0 mandates quantum-safe NSS by 2035 (new NSS 2027, apps 2030, infrastructure 2035). A practical plan for compliance and why the 2035 deadline is the industry default.
CRQC Explained: When Does a Quantum Computer Actually Break Encryption?
CRQC (Cryptographically Relevant Quantum Computer) explained. What the acronym means in NIST and NSA documents, how it differs from quantum supremacy, and when experts expect one to arrive.
Crypto-Agility Explained: The Architecture That Survives Q-Day
Crypto-agility is the architectural discipline of swapping cryptographic primitives without rebuilding systems. NIST CSWP 39 (Dec 2025 draft) formalizes the concept. A practical guide.
ECDH vs ML-KEM: The Quantum Safe Key Exchange Comparison
ECDH (X25519, P-256) vs ML-KEM-768 for key exchange. Classical elegance vs Post Quantum Cryptography security. Why hybrid X25519+ML-KEM is the deployed standard.
ECDSA vs ML-DSA: Quantum Resistant Signature Comparison
ECDSA is broken by Shor. ML-DSA (FIPS 204) is NIST's quantum-resistant replacement. Signature sizes, performance, and migration paths compared.
ETSI Quantum-Safe Cryptography Standards: TS 103 744 and TC CYBER QSC
ETSI's TC CYBER Quantum-Safe Cryptography (QSC) working group. TS 103 744 for hybrid key exchange, separate ETSI ISG QKD for quantum key distribution.
FedRAMP, SOC 2, and Post Quantum Cryptography: Compliance Implications
How FedRAMP, SOC 2, FIPS 140-3, and ISO 27001 address Post Quantum Cryptography. Current requirements, anticipated changes, and practical compliance steps.
GDPR and Post Quantum Cryptography: How Quantum Safe Encryption Supports Long-Term Compliance
GDPR Article 32 requires appropriate technical measures. Here is how Post Quantum Cryptography aligns with GDPR, especially for long-retention personal data and HNDL risk.
Google Willow: 105 Qubits, Below-Threshold Error Correction, and the Long Road to Quantum Relevance
Google Willow (Dec 9, 2024): 105 qubits with below-threshold quantum error correction. What the surface code milestone means, what it does not mean, and where it fits in Post Quantum Cryptography timelines.
Grover's Algorithm: The Quantum Attack on AES and Why It Isn't as Scary as Shor's
Grover's algorithm explained for non-specialists. Lov Grover's 1996 quadratic quantum speedup, what it does to AES-256, and why symmetric encryption survives the quantum threat.
Your Backup Archives Are HNDL Targets: A Quantum Safe Guide
Backup archives encrypted with RSA or ECDH are Harvest Now Decrypt Later targets. A practical Post Quantum Cryptography re-encryption plan for cold storage and long-term backups.
Why Your Encrypted Email Is Already Exposed to Harvest Now Decrypt Later
Email using S/MIME or PGP is HNDL-vulnerable. Classical RSA and ECDH are in every hop. Post Quantum Cryptography is not yet the default. Here is the practical migration path.
HNDL Threat Modeling for Enterprise Security Teams: Post Quantum Cryptography Roadmap
A practical HNDL threat model for enterprise CISOs: data asset inventory, Mosca's X+Y>Z calculation, risk scoring, and Post Quantum Cryptography migration sequencing.
HNDL and Undersea Cables: How Encrypted Traffic Is Being Harvested Today
Nation-state signals intelligence taps undersea fiber cables and stockpiles encrypted traffic. Harvest Now Decrypt Later uses today's collection for tomorrow's Post Quantum Cryptography decryption.
How to Inventory Your Cryptographic Assets: Post Quantum Cryptography Migration Step 1
A practical guide to cryptographic asset inventory: where to look, what to catalog, and how to rank by Post Quantum Cryptography migration priority.
Hybrid Post Quantum Cryptography Migration: A Step-by-Step Playbook
A practical 10-step playbook for hybrid Post Quantum Cryptography migration. From inventory through production rollout with ML-KEM + X25519 and ML-DSA + Ed25519 hybrids.
IBM Quantum's Roadmap: Condor, Flamingo, and What 1,121 Qubits Actually Means for Post Quantum Cryptography
IBM Quantum roadmap: Condor (1,121 qubits Dec 2023), Flamingo, Kookaburra. What the qubit counts mean (and don't mean) for breaking RSA and your Post Quantum Cryptography timeline.
IETF and Post Quantum Cryptography: Drafts, RFCs, and the Quantum Safe Internet
IETF's Post Quantum Cryptography work: RFC 9941 (SSH hybrid), draft-ietf-tls-ecdhe-mlkem, OpenPGP PQC, IPsec PQC. How the Internet migrates to quantum-safe protocols.
IonQ: The First Publicly Traded Quantum Company, and Why Its Qubit Count Matters for Quantum Resistant Timelines
IonQ's Forte Enterprise (#AQ36, Sept 2023), SPAC merger 2021, KISTI Korea partnership. What IonQ's trapped-ion scale-up means for Post Quantum Cryptography.
ISO/IEC and Post Quantum Cryptography: Standards in Progress (SC 27 WG 2)
ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 27 WG 2 is developing international standards for Post Quantum Cryptography. Status of Standing Document 8 and global harmonization with NIST FIPS 203/204/205.
Mosca's Theorem: Worked Examples for Every Industry (Healthcare, Finance, Legal, Defense)
Mosca's X+Y>Z theorem applied industry by industry: healthcare, finance, legal, defense, small business. When each industry should have started migrating to Post Quantum Cryptography.
Open-Source Post Quantum Cryptography Libraries: liboqs, oqs-provider, Botan, BoringSSL
Review of major open-source Post Quantum Cryptography libraries: liboqs, oqs-provider, Botan, BoringSSL, AWS-LC. Feature matrix, maturity, and which to pick for production.
OpenSSH and Post Quantum Cryptography: RFC 9941, ML-KEM Hybrid, and the Quantum Safe SSH Migration
OpenSSH Post Quantum Cryptography: RFC 9941 (sntrup761x25519 SSH hybrid KEX, April 2026), draft-ietf-sshm-mlkem-hybrid-kex. Quantum-safe SSH migration guide.
OpenSSL and Post Quantum Cryptography: What's Shipped and Stable in 2026
OpenSSL 3 supports Post Quantum Cryptography via oqs-provider. Stable status of ML-KEM, ML-DSA, hybrid TLS groups, and what's still draft.
Is PGP/GPG Dead? Post Quantum Cryptography Alternatives Compared
PGP/GPG uses RSA, DSA, ElGamal, ECDH - all broken by Shor. What quantum-safe alternatives exist, and how Post Quantum Cryptography is coming to OpenPGP.
Quantum Safe Cryptography for Connected Cars: UN R155, ISO/SAE 21434, and V2X
Quantum Safe Cryptography for connected and autonomous vehicles. UN R155, ISO/SAE 21434, IEEE 1609.2 V2X, and the coming PQC upgrade.
Post Quantum Cryptography for Power Grid and Critical Infrastructure (CISA Guidance)
Post Quantum Cryptography for power grid and critical infrastructure. CISA OT guidance, NERC CIP status, and migration strategy for utility operators.
Post Quantum Cryptography for Education: FERPA and Quantum Resistant Student Records
Post Quantum Cryptography for education: FERPA student record protection, quantum resistant archives, and HNDL defense for schools and universities.
Post Quantum Cryptography for Developers: Your First Quantum Resistant Code
Hands-on Post Quantum Cryptography for developers. Install liboqs, generate ML-KEM keys, hybrid encryption patterns. A practical starter guide.
Post Quantum Cryptography for Small Business: Practical Quantum Safe Steps
A 5-step quantum-safe plan for small businesses without dedicated security teams. Use off-the-shelf Post Quantum Cryptography in browsers, messaging, and backups.
Post Quantum Cryptography for Insurance: NAIC Data Security and 30-Year Claim Windows
Insurance data has 30-year claim windows. HNDL plus long retention means insurers must adopt Post Quantum Cryptography now under NAIC Model Law #668.
IoT and Post Quantum Cryptography: Will Your Smart Home Survive Q-Day?
Post Quantum Cryptography for IoT and smart home devices: NIST SP 800-213, Matter, Thread, and what to demand from vendors before Q-Day.
Quantum Safe Cryptography for Journalists: Protecting Sources Forever
Quantum Safe Cryptography for journalists. Signal PQXDH, SecureDrop, and Post Quantum Cryptography techniques for lifetime source protection.
Post Quantum Cryptography for Legal: Protecting Attorney-Client Privilege Against HNDL
Post Quantum Cryptography for law firms: attorney-client privilege, ABA Model Rules 1.1 and 1.6, and harvest-now-decrypt-later defense for legal data.
Budgeting for Post Quantum Cryptography Migration
How to budget a Post Quantum Cryptography migration without falling for vendor marketing. Categories of spend, realistic estimates, and how to fund multi-year PQC projects.
Training Your Team for Post Quantum Cryptography Migration
PQC migration training plan for engineering, security, and operations teams. NIST, OWASP, and vendor-agnostic resources for building a quantum-safe workforce.
Quantum Safe Cryptography for Pharma: Protecting Clinical Trial Data for Decades
FDA 21 CFR Part 11 governs clinical trial data retention. Decades of confidentiality plus HNDL means pharma must migrate to Post Quantum Cryptography now.
Quantum Safe Satellite Communications: Micius, Starlink, and Post Quantum Cryptography
Quantum Safe satellite communications in 2026: Micius QKD, QuSecure over Starlink, Post Quantum Cryptography options for LEO and GEO operators.
Quantinuum and Trapped-Ion Quantum Computers: 56 Qubits, 12 Logical Qubits, and Post Quantum Cryptography Context
Quantinuum's H2 trapped-ion system (56 qubits, 99.8% 2Q fidelity) and Microsoft-Quantinuum 12 logical qubits (Sept 2024). What trapped ion's high fidelity means for Post Quantum Cryptography timing.
Quantum Error Correction and Post Quantum Cryptography: The Missing Piece Before Q-Day
Quantum error correction is the unglamorous bottleneck between noisy qubits and a Cryptographically Relevant Quantum Computer. Here is what it is, how it works, and why it matters for your PQC migration.
Quantum Supremacy vs Cryptographically Relevant Quantum (CRQC): The Difference That Matters for Quantum Safe Encryption
Quantum supremacy headlines do not mean your data is in danger. Here is the difference between a contrived benchmark and a Cryptographically Relevant Quantum Computer (CRQC), explained plainly.
What Is a Qubit? A Security Professional's Guide to Post Quantum Cryptography Threats
Qubits explained for security professionals without the physics prerequisites. Superposition, entanglement, measurement, and what it all means for Post Quantum Cryptography readiness.
Rigetti Ankaa-3: 84-Qubit Superconducting Quantum Computing and Quantum Safe Implications
Rigetti Computing's Ankaa-3 (Dec 2024, 84 qubits, 99.5% median 2Q fSim gate fidelity). Progress, positioning in the quantum hardware race, and implications for Post Quantum Cryptography.
RSA vs ML-KEM: Post Quantum Cryptography Side-by-Side
RSA vs ML-KEM (FIPS 203): side-by-side comparison of classical public-key encryption and Post Quantum Cryptography. Security assumptions, key sizes, performance, and when to deploy hybrid.
Shor's Algorithm in Plain English: How Quantum Breaks RSA and Why Post Quantum Cryptography Replaces It
Shor's algorithm explained for non-specialists. How Peter Shor's 1994 quantum algorithm breaks RSA, Diffie-Hellman, and ECC, and why NIST Post Quantum Cryptography (FIPS 203/204/205) replaces them.
Symmetric vs Asymmetric Encryption: Which One Quantum Breaks and Which Survives
Quantum computers break public-key cryptography catastrophically. Symmetric crypto survives with larger keys. Here is the full breakdown, and why it changes your migration strategy.
TLS 1.2 vs TLS 1.3 vs Post Quantum TLS: The Quantum Safe Migration
TLS 1.2 vs 1.3 vs PQ-TLS. Why TLS 1.3 is the required platform for Post Quantum Cryptography deployment, and what X25519MLKEM768 default in Chrome means.
VPN Providers PQC Scorecard: Who Has Shipped Quantum Safe Key Exchange
Which VPN providers have deployed Post Quantum Cryptography? Mullvad, NordVPN, ExpressVPN, IVPN - the public PQC scorecard as of April 2026.
Why Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) Cannot Survive Quantum: A Quantum Safe Guide
ECC (including ECDH, ECDSA, Ed25519, and X25519) relies on the discrete logarithm problem. Shor's algorithm breaks it as completely as it breaks RSA. Here is why.
Why RSA-2048 Will Break (and What Quantum Resistant Algorithms Replace It)
RSA-2048 is secure today, but Shor's algorithm guarantees it will be broken by any sufficiently large quantum computer. Here is why, when, and what ML-KEM does in its place.
Y2Q: The Y2K-Style Countdown to Quantum, Explained
Y2Q is the quantum-computing analogue to Y2K. A practical countdown for enterprise IT, comparing Y2K experience to Post Quantum Cryptography migration urgency.
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